مجله پژوهش های حبوبات ایران
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 28، پاییز و زمستان 1402)

Salinity stress is one of the most vital abiotic stresses which limits the production of crops. In recent decades, the area under chickpea cultivation in Iran has tripled, but unfortunately, its yield has decreased from 610 to 500 Kg per hectare. The main reason for this reduction is the allocation of marginal lands under rain-fed conditions to chickpea cultivation. However, environmental stresses are the most critical factors of yield loss that can decrease chickpeas production significantly. The growth of chickpea is susceptible to salinity, and salinity stress affects their yield by affecting plant growth and symbiotic bacteria. Considering the current extent of salt-affected lands in Iran and in order to maintain and increase the area under chickpea cultivation, it is necessary to select the salt-tolerant genotypes. Therefore, this study was carried out to determining the salinity tolerance threshold of Kabuli -type chickpea genotypes.

The experiment was a split-plot randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates at the research greenhouse of the faculty of agriculture of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in 2020. Chickpea germplasm, including 70 Kabuli type chickpea genotypes, were provided from the Mashhad chickpea collection at the Research Center for Plant Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Two weeks after seed planting, the salinity treatments included 12 and 16 dS.m-1 sodium chloride and 0.5 dS.m-1 (tap water) as control was applied. The recirculating nutrient system was applied, the nutrient solution was replaced weekly, and the salinity of nutrient solution was adjusted daily, but no acidity adjustments were made in the Hoagland solution. The plant height was measured before and after four weeks of applying salinity stress, and then the difference in plant height was calculated. Four weeks after salinity application, survival percentage, leaves survival, plant height, leaf electrolyte leakage, osmotic potential, shoot dry weight, and Na to K ratio were measured. Salinity tolerance indexes, including stress tolerance (TOL), mean productivity (MP), stress susceptibility index (SSI), geometric mean productivity (GMP), and stress tolerance index (STI), were calculated based on the shoot dry weight and separately for 12 and 16 dS.m-1 compared to the control treatment. Data were analyzed using Minitab 16 software, and the mean comparison was performed by Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% probability level. Interrelationship among different traits was calculated using Pearson's correlation analysis. STATISTICA 8.0 and SPSS 27 soft wares also performed a cluster analysis (based on Euclidean distance) and principal component analysis (PCA).

The results showed that for the salinity levels of 12 and 16 dS.m-1, 65 and 28 genotypes had a survival between 76 -100%, respectively. With the decrease in the survival percentage in 16 dS.m-1, the average percentage of leaf survival also decreased. With increased salinity levels from 12 to 16 dS.m-1, electrolyte leakage in the survival range of 76 -100, 51 -75, and 26 -50% increased by 8, 25, and 12%, respectively. With increased salinity levels from 12 to 16 dS.m-1, in survival ranges of 0 -25, 26 -50, 51 -75, and 76 -100%, shoot dry weight decreased by 15, 11, 36, and 14%. With increased salinity levels from 12 to 16 dS.m-1, the shoot Na to K ratio in the survival range of 26-50% did not change, and in the survival range of 0 -25, 51 -75 and 76 -100%, it increased two and nine times and 22% respectively. The highest average shoot Na to K ratio was also observed within the survival range of 0 -25%. In 12 and 16 dS.m-1, two genotypes, MCC1467 and MCC1394, were superior to other genotypes in most studied traits. The genotypes of the third cluster had a higher relative advantage for salinity tolerance.

In general, the results showed the diversity between chickpea genotypes under salinity stress. In 12 and 16 dS.m-1 salinity, MCC1467 and MCC1394 were superior to other genotypes in most studied traits. In saline conditions plant survival had a positive and strong correlation with leaf survival. In the saline condition, genotypes that can maintain their normal physiological function can maintain and expand more leaf area, which ultimately leads to more biomass production. The genotypes of the third cluster had a more advantage for salinity tolerance. Due to this study being conducted in greenhouse conditions, it is recommended to check the salinity tolerance of superior genotypes in field conditions.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is considered as one of the rich sources of plant protein in human diet and an important factor in soil fertility which has of special position in the crop rotation programs. In Iran, chickpea is grown in spring and autumn. Ascochyta blight is currently considered as the most important limiting factor of winter cultivation of chickpea in Iran. Identifying sources of resistance to Ascochyta blight by performing screening tests using artificial inoculation is one of the common methods in plant breeding. The cost and risks of spreading the diversity of pathogenic fungi due to the use of infected plots are among the limitations of alternative studies. Providing a reliable in vitro screening method besides speeding up the breeding programs can overcome many of these limitations.

Two chickpea seed samples were selected in the presented study which were including; MCC133 and ILC1929, respectively, as resistant and susceptible lines to Ascochyta blight. The seed samples were provided by the seed bank of the Research Center for Plant Sciences of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The fungal isolates called PI (Pathotype No. 1), related to Ascochyta rabiei with strain number of FUM 1001 was obtained from the Microorganisms Collection of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (WDCM 1207), Iran. The germinated chickpea seeds were planted in pots containing equal proportions of leached sterilized coco peat and perlite. The pots were kept in a growth chamber at 24±2 °C and 16:8 h light/dark photoperiod and fertilized weekly by ZISTA nutritional plant solution up to 5 leaves. Three leaves were detached from each seedling and placed under sterile conditions in test tubes. The durability and growth potential of surface and endogenous infections on chickpea leaves detached from the seedlings grown in greenhouse condition were investigated after surface disinfection and culture under in vitro condition without nutrient medium. Moreover, the severity and rate of disease symptoms development as a result of applying two inoculation methods were compared on detached leaves separated from susceptible cultivar. In addition, the possibility of differentiation of resistant and susceptible genotypes was investigated in response to a virulent pathotype. In the final stage, the possibility of differentiation of different fungal pathotypes was evaluated based on pathogenicity on resistant cultivar.

Our daily visual observation showed that, no signs of fungal growth or symptoms of infection related to saprophytes were observed on detached leaves inside the test tube until the tenth day. The leaves were completely fresh until the tenth day and there were no symptoms of wilting on them. On the tenth day, a number of leaf samples had slightly reduced their greenness, but were perfectly healthy. The results showed that using this method the detached leaves can be stored safely in the test tube for at least 10 days. In addition, the method of preparing the leaves has prevented any surface infection. The results of pathogenicity test showed a clear difference between the disease symptoms in the two inoculation methods. Symptoms of the disease were visible on the leaves of susceptible cultivars in the immersion method from the third day in the form of very small spots resulting from the destruction of the cuticular layer on the leaf surface. These symptoms were strengthened on the fifth day. Disease development was increased rapidly in the whole leaf and the wounds were quite visible on the eighth day. In the drip method, no visible symptoms were visible until the eighth day, and on the tenth day, the wounds were observed at the site of inoculation. The results indicate that the immersion method induces quicker symptom development on leaflets, with a more rapid and widespread effect across the entire leaf. Additionally, owing to the limited survival period of detached leaves, this method facilitates faster symptom manifestation within a relatively shorter timeframe. Thus, inoculation by immersion method has a higher efficiency in the occurrence of Ascochyta blight disease symptoms. The disease symptoms observed on the leaves are due to the activity of a wide range of compounds produced by the fungus, including plant tissue degrading enzymes, toxins and fungal metabolites that are toxic to the plant. Investigation on gene expression pattern of A. rabiei in the early hours of plant infection has shown an increase in the expression of different gene families which can cause symptoms on the plant by destroying the cuticle of the leaf surface and cell wall in the early stages of infection.

Taken together, these results showed that the invented method of testing the pathogenicity inside the test tube is well able to distinguish resistant and sensitive cultivars from each other. Accordingly, this method can be used in selection studies and evaluation of resistance of chickpea samples against infection with A. rabiei isolates.

Drought is one of the most important non-living stresses that has an adverse effect on crop production and their quality and leads to osmotic, ionic, and nutritional limitations as well as growth delay, metabolic disorders and oxidative stress in plants. Iran has a dry and semi-arid climate and the occurrence of drought stress during the growth period of plants is inevitable. Presently, the production of legumes in the country is mostly under rainfed conditions and drought stress is one of the main factors reducing the yield of legumes. Mung bean is a small grain of valuable legume. Evaluation of the performance of different cultivars is considered a starting point in identifying drought-resistant cultivars. Cycocel is one of the most important growth retarders for tampering with growth and performance. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate the effect of foliar application of cycocel on quantitative traits of mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes under water deficit conditions.

In order to investigate the effect of foliar application with cycocel and water requirements on quantitative traits of mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes, experiental desing of split-split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in research farm of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Experimental factors included 3 levels of drought (non-stress, mild stress, and severe stress), 3 levels of cycocel foliar spraying (0, 400, and 800 mg/L), and 2 levels of mung bean cultivars (Hendi landrace and Zarbakhsh). Statistical analysis was performed using SAS 9.4 and comparing the means was based on the LSD method at a 5% probability level. 

The experimental results showed that the effect of drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel as well as drought stress and genotype on the number of pods per plant were significant. The results showed that drought stress reduced the number of pods in the plant and cycocel increased it. The number of pods in the plant of the Hendi landrace genotype decreased more than that of the Zarbakhsh genotype due to drought stress. Also, drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel as well as drought stress and genotype on the number of seeds in the pod, were significant. The results showed that cycocel increased the number of seeds per pod, while drought stress decreased the number of pods per plant. It was also found that at all levels of drought stress, the Zarbakhsh genotype had more seeds in pods than the Hendi landrace genotype. Drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel as well as drought stress and genotype had a significant effect on the 1000-seed weight. The results showed that the 1000-seed weight increased due to the application of cycocel, while drought stress decreased this trait. In addition, it was observed that the 1000-seed weight of the Hendi landrace genotype decreased more than the Zarbakhsh genotype due to drought stress. Drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and interaction between drought stress and cycocel had a significant effect on grain yield. The results showed that the grain yield in the Zarbakhsh genotype was significantly higher than in the Hendi landrace genotype. It was also observed that drought stress decreased and the application of cycocel increased grain yield. Drought stress, cycocel, and genotype had a significant effect on biological performance. Drought stress caused a significant decrease in biological yield. The use of cycocel increased the biological performance and increasing the concentration of this substance increased the biological performance. The results of variance analysis of data showed that the effect of drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel, drought stress and genotype as well as cycocel and genotype on harvest index were significant. In addition, it was observed that the harvest index of the Hendi landrace genotype decreased more than the Zarbakhsh genotype due to drought stress.

According to the results of this study in the presence of drought stress, it showed a decrease in yield and its components. Among the studied mung bean cultivars, the Zarbakhsh cultivar showed superiority in tolerance to water shortage conditions compared to other cultivars. The use of cycocel reduced the negative effects of drought stress on the plant. It appeared that the use of cycocel under drought stress conditions improved the plant better plants performance.

Weeds are one of the most problematic factors in chickpea production systems and chemical control of weeds is limited in Iran because of registered selective herbicides for this crop are not available for farmers. In this situation, optimizing of herbicide application (especially soil-applied herbicides) is one way that can help farmers to combat with weeds. Incorporated By Sowing (IBS) is one of the best way for optimizing of non-selective soil herbicides application in crops. The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the possibility application of non-selective soil-applied herbicides in directed planting of chickpea via IBS.

Application possibility of non-selective herbicides in directed sowing of chickpea was evaluated in Ardabil and Zanjan in 2020. The treatments were arranged in a strip plot experiment with randomized complete block design and 3 replications. The vertical factor was herbicide application (including: trifluralin, metribuzin, pendimethalin, imazethapyr, and their combination with (phenmedipham+desmedipham+ethofumesate), and also oxyfluorfen and weedy and weed free controls. Horizontal factor was incorporated by sowing (IBS) methods (including: incorporate by seed planter and cultivator+seed planter). Seed germination of chickpea, weed density and biomass and chickpea grain yield were evaluated 30 days after herbicide application and in the end of chickpea growth.

IBS methods did not have a significant impact on weed and chickpea density and biomass. Therefore, the use of a cultivator before seed planting is only recommended when the seedbed is inadequately prepared or if pre-planting weed control has not been effectively executed. In contrast, herbicides had significant effects on weeds population and chickpea in experimental locations. In Ardabil, pendimetalin and pendimetalin + (phenmedipham + desmedipham + ethofumesate) were the only treatments that had low efficacy on weeds (with 48.9 and 51.7 % weed biomass reduction respectively) and other treatments had no significant difference in 30 days after herbicides application. In the end of growing season, the highest weeds biomass reduction (in compared with control) were recorded in trifluralin, metribuzin and imazethapyr in combination with (phenmedipham + desmedipham + ethofumesate) and oxyfluorfen (with 84, 83, 80 and 70 of control (%) respectively). In Zanjan, single application of trifluralin and metribuzin and their combination with (phenmedipham + desmedipham + ethofumesate) and combination of imazethapyr with (phenmedipham + desmedipham + ethofumesate) had the highest weed control with 79, 71, 78.6 and 75.5 % respectively. In contrast with Ardabil, the lowest weed control efficacy was recorded in oxyfluorfen plots (22.4%). Grain yield of chickpea was also high in trifluralin + (phenmedipham + desmedipham + ethofumesate) and was low in imazethapyr in Zanjan and Ardabil.

Application of soil herbicides (including: Metribuzin and Trifluralin) in chickpea is possible only if, farmers use them just before sowing and incorporate the herbicides into the seedbed during the sowing process.

Common pea is an annual crop of the legominosae family with the capability of biological nitrogen fixation, and as such it has an important role in increasing productivity of field soil and is commonly used in crop rotation programs. This crop has high nutritional value due to high concentrations of the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan. Sustainability, in terms of obtaining maximum crop productivity from a system while maintaining conservation of its resources, is one of the most important components of an agricultural system. There is a close relationship between agriculture and energy, so that energy has a direct effect on the efficiency of crop production. Agricultural systems need to be evaluated in terms of input and output energy, so that based on that, the amount of energy consumed for product production per unit area can be determined. In essence, assessing the sustainability of production in agricultural systems involves considering the balance between energy input and output. Consequently, the identification and effective management of input energy become pivotal factors in enhancing the overall energy efficiency of a production system. The current research was carried out to evaluate energy consumption and production in a common pea dry land farming system to reach the best possible improvement of energy balance.

Evaluation of the energy balance of a common pea dry land farming system and the effect of a complementary irrigation on total energy efficiency was determined from values for energy inputs and outputs including seed, pesticide (liquid herbicide), human labor (men and women), machinery, diesel fuel and grain yield per unit area. Energy inputs were determined from questionnaires completed by farmers. Farmers were asked to provide the information on their cultivation system including technical specifications for type of machinery used, including motor capacity, total land area, planting and harvesting method, crop yield per unit area, number of workers, amount of seed, amounts of fertilizer and pesticides. Energy efficiency of the system was evaluated by calculating the energy ratio and net output energy.

Results showed that the highest energy input belonged to diesel fuel, followed by seed. Distances between the input of diesel fuel and other inputs were high, where 87% (12724 MJ.ha-1) of total consumed energy was allocated to diesel fuel. Grain yield of the common pea production system with and without complementary irrigation were 863 Kg.ha-1 and 645 Kg.ha-1, produced by consuming 14488 MJ.ha-1 and 14679 MJ.ha-1, respectively. In other words, complementary irrigation resulted in more input energy and grain yield. In the current research, complementary irrigation caused a considerable improvement in grain yield that resulted in higher output energy. Complementary irrigation increased input energy from 14589 MJ.ha-1 to 14679 MJ.ha-1 (60 MJ.ha-1was added) (Figure 2), but evaluations of energy ratio and net output energy revealed the positive effect of complementary irrigation on energy efficiency.

The dry land farming system for common peas exhibited low energy efficiency, primarily attributed to diminished grain production. Notably, diesel fuel consumption represented the highest energy input. While some essential production activities inevitably lead to increased input energy, it is recognized that managing inputs may not always guarantee improved energy efficiency. However, the experiment demonstrated that introducing complementary irrigation during the flowering stage of common peas resulted in an enhanced energy efficiency for the system.

The practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field is called intercropping and it is a common feature in traditional farming of small landholders. It provides farmers with a variety of returns from land and labor, often increases the efficiency with which scarce resources are used, and reduces the failure risk of a single crop that is susceptible to environmental and economic fluctuation. There is another important way that without incurring additional costs and use of water and fertilizer could result in higher production. This approach is increasing agricultural production per unit area by growing more than one crop in a year. Intercropping will be successful when competition for sources is less than competition within a species. Plants in the mixture can be chosen in a way that a species benefits from environmental changes caused by other species in mixed cultures directly. Intercropping inhibits the growth and development of weeds and leads to increased production. Since the system will reduce pesticide use, environmental pollution will be also less proportionally. The objective of the present study was to study some traits of chickpea (plant height, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, number of seeds per plant, 100-seed weight, and plant yield,) under application of nitrogen and planting pattern of chickpea and quinoa.

In order to study the effect of nitrogen and intercropping ratios of chickpea and quinoa on some traits of chickpeas, a factorial experiment based on randomized complete Block design (RCBD) was conducted with three replications at Gonbad Kavous University farm during the 2020-2021 growing season. Nitrogen factor was included three levels of non-application and application of 25 and 50 kg N/ha and the treatments of planting pattern were included 9 levels of sole cropping of chickpea, 67 % chickpea + 33 % quinoa, 50% chickpea + 50% quinoa, 33% chickpea + 67% quinoa, 100% chickpea + 33% quinoa, 100% chickpea + 50 % quinoa, 100% chickpea + 67% quinoa, 100% chickpea + 100% quinoa and sole cropping of quinoa. In sole cropping, the distance between the plants on the row for chickpea and quinoa was 10 cm. The operation of harvesting the entire plot was done by removing the border rows and half a meter from both sides of the middle rows. For analysis variance of data software of SAS Ver.9.1.3 was used and treatment mean differences were separated by the least significant difference (LSD) test at the 0.05 probability level.

The results of analysis variance showed that planting pattern and nitrogen had a significant effect on plant height, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant, 100-seed weight, and plant yield chickpea and also plant height, number of seeds per plant, 1000-seed weight, and plant yield quinoa. Plant height in additive intercropping was more than in replacement intercropping but the number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant, 100-seed weight, seed weight per plant, and pods weight per plant in replacement treatments and sole cropping of chickpea was more than additive treatments. Nitrogen application increased all traits. Plant yield of quinoa in replacement intercropping of 33% quinoa instead of chickpea was greater than other treatments. However, the plant yield of chickpea in sole cropping of chickpea and replacement intercropping of 33% quinoa instead of chickpeas with 14.11 and 13.26 respectively, which was greater than other treatments.

Plant height in additive intercropping treatments was more than in replacement intercropping but the number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant, 100-seed weight, plant yield, and plant dry weight in replacement treatments and sole cropping of chickpea was more than additive treatments.

Dust storms are meteorological phenomena that usually occur in arid and semi-arid regions with an annual rainfall of less than 200 to 250 mm when strong winds blow with a high speed. Dust particles affect plants growth and development directly by depositing in shoot or indirectly by changing soil chemical properties (Maletsika et al., 2015). The interference of weeds with the mungbean (Vigna radiate) plant is one of the important factors limiting the production capacity of this crop, which leads to a decrease in yield and an increase in production costs. The competition between crops and weeds becomes more complicated when coincide with environmental stresses like soil dust. Compared to crops, weeds are more resistant to environmental stresses and have a high capacity to absorb more water and nutrients. The aim of this research was to evaluate the competitive balance between lambsquarters and mungbean under soil dust conditions in order to manage production of this crop with lambsquarters under soil dust conditions.

The pot experiment was carried out in the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture of Ilam University, Iran in spring of 2022. The experiment was conducted as a factorial based on a completely randomized design with four replications. The treatments were included soil dust at two levels (0 and 60 g dust.m-3 of air) and replacement planting pattern at five levels (mungbean monoculture, lambsquarters monoculture, alternative intercropping of 75% mungbean + 25% lambsquarters, 50% mungbean + 50% lambsquarters and 25% mungbean + 75% lambsquarters). Totally, four plants per pots were sown. The measured traits were included physiological characteristics such as photosynthetic pigments, photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, leaf area, plant height, stem diameter, biological yield and grain yield components of mungbean and inflorescence yield of lambsquarters.

The results showed that soil dust has no significant effect on the morpho-physiological characteristics of lambsquarters weed, while it decreased the photosynthesis rate, leaf relative water content, leaf area, plant height, number of pods per plant, biological yield and grain yield of mungbean by 26.1, 9.7, 10.6, 19.3, 14.8, 24 and 23.2%, respectively. The highest amount of chlorophyll in mungbean leaves (4.65 mg g-1 fresh weight of leaves) was obtained in the intercropping patterns of 75% mungbean + 25% lambsquarters and monoculture of mungbean under no dust conditions. The highest photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, leaf area and number of pods in mungbean plant were observed in monoculture and planting pattern of 75% mungbean + 25% lambsquarters. The highest seeds number per plant (10.4 and 10.1) was observed in monoculture of mungbean and planting pattern of 75% mungbean + 25% lambsquarters under the no dust condition, which was 30.5 and 65.8 percent higher compared to dust treatment, respectively. The lowest seed number per plant (3.3) was obtained in 25% mungbean + 75% lambsquarters. Under both dust and no dust conditions in all plant patterns, the actual mungbean seed yield was lower than the expected yield and the changes in curve of mungbean yield was concave; but the actual yield of lambsquarters was more than the expected lambsquarters inflorescence yield, and the curve was convex suggesting a commensalism relationship for lambsquarters and amensalism relationship for mungbean. The relative crowding coefficient and the competition ratio under both conditions of dust and in different planting patterns were obtained for lambsquarters weed, were greater than one, which indicates the superiority of lambsquarters competitive ability compared to mungbean. The aggressivity index of lambsquarters under dusty conditions was higher than under dust-free conditions, which shows that lambsquarters weed has more competitive capacity under environmental stress conditions including soil dust. The results also showed that the mungbean plant has a greater potential to absorb dust than the lambsquarters weed, which is due to the presence of trichome in mungbean leaves surface. In general, in this experiment the lambsquarters dominated the mungbean plant in competition for water and nutritional resources and had better growth compared to mungbean in different planting patterns.

In the presence of dust, lambsquarters weed may have higher efficiency to use environmental resources due to its higher adaptability compared to the mungbean and causes decreasing in the yield of crop plants including mungbean. The interactive effect of dust and the interference from lambsquarters caused a significant decrease in mungbean yield. Therefore, the management of lambsquarters under dusty conditions is of important value.